6 Organisms That Can Survive the Fallout From A Nuclear Explosion

An animal's ability to survive the fallout from a nuclear explosion is usually dependent on its ability to withstand radiation, otherwise known as radio-resistance. Radio-resistant life forms or ionizing-radiation-resistant organisms (IRRO) are a group of organisms that require large doses of radiation, 1000 gray (Gy) to achieve a 90% reduction in their survival rate. To put it in perspective, a human would need something in the range of 4-10 (Gy) to achieve the same results and a dog could withstand even less, about 3.5 (Gy). Gray, with the symbol of (Gy), is a unit of measurement used to describe the absorption of radiation energy per 1 kilogram of matter. 

Compared to dogs, some humans can withstand a little more radiation abuse, but there are other mammals that cope even better in a radiation soaked environment. For example, rats can withstand about 7.5 (Gy), and mice can survive up to 9 (Gy). Although, these numbers are terribly inadequate compared to some of the extremely radio-resistant organisms out there. This is because mammals, humans in particular, have quick cell cycles. Meaning that in humans some cells are constantly dividing and replicating themselves and during the process of cell replication is when these cells are the most vulnerable to the effects of radiation. Animals that have slower cell cycles are usually more resistant to higher radiation levels that can result in cell death and DNA deterioration. These radio-resistant creatures certainly have a larger window of time to escape the fallout, up to a week or more for some of those with particularly slow cell cycles. Here is a list of 6 animals that can survive the fallout from a nuclear explosion:

#1 Thermococcus gammatolerans - 30,000 gray (Gy)

The species Thermococcus gammatolerans' ability to withstand up to 30,000 (Gy) in a short amount of time is quite amazing. Especially when compared to the measly radio-resistance of 4-10 (Gy) in humans, with some dying within weeks after a dose of only 1 (Gy). Thermococcus gammatolerans are microorganisms with no cell nucleus. They are considered to be in the class of archaea extremophiles, and are the most radiation resistant organisms known to man. Extremophiles are organisms that live in the most extreme environments on Earth, like hydrothermal vents located at the bottom of the ocean. These hydrothermal vents are where Thermococcus gammatolerans thrive and this naturally harsh environment lends them pre-programmed ability to withstand almost any kind of super weapon we might throw at them. 

While a dose of only 60 (Gy) is enough to kill all the cells in a colony of E. coli, Thermococcus gammatolerans can live through a dose of up to 30,000 (Gy) over a short amount of time and even remain viable after an instantaneous dose of 5,000 (Gy). For comparison, the people that fell victim to the Chernobyl power plant disaster would have soaked up a instantaneous dose of about 6 (Gy), which killed most of them within a week. 

During the Chernobyl disaster four hundred times more radioactive material was released than at the atomic bombing of Hiroshima, the dose at 1000 meters from ground zero is estimated at about 4 (Gy), and around 12 (Gy) at ground zero, meaning that Thermococcus gammatolerans can survive the radiation of 7,500 Hiroshima blasts at 1000 feet. In perspective, the typical radiation absorption rate for humans, in the United States, is about 0.008 (Gy), while occupational exposure levels, in the U.S., allows up to 0.05 (Gy) to be absorbed safely in a year. With medical care, about half of the population can survive 6 (Gy) in whole body exposure and some have survived up to 10 (Gy). Nearly all people who receive more than 8 (Gy) die within a few days but most who absorb less than 2 (Gy) fully recover within 1 month, although long-term complications such as cancer may occur. 

Thermococcus gammatolerans is resistant to radiation due to their ability to slowly or quickly rebuild damaged chromosomes and reconstitute DNA without a loss of viability. It has been suggested that their DNA repair mechanisms could be incorporated into the genome of higher species in order to improve DNA repair and reduce cellular aging.

#2 Deinococcus radiodurans - 15,000 gray (Gy)

Deinococcus radiodurans is a bacterium, and like the microorganism Thermococcus gammatolerans, it is also considered an extremophile. In addition to being an extremophile, it is also regarded as a polyextremophile, meaning that it can survive cold, acid, vacuum, and dehydration. Deinococcus radiodurans is listed as the the world's toughest bacterium in The Guinness Book of World Records, and is nicknamed Conan the Bacterium.

It was discovered in the 50's, when experiments were being performed to determine if canned food could be sterilized using high doses of gamma radiation. A can of meat product was subsequently exposed to a dose of radiation. Previously, these levels of radiation were believed to kill all known forms of life, yet surprisingly after the meat spoiled a newly discovered bacterium, Deinococcus radiodurans, was isolated. 

Luckily for us, Conan the Bacterium doesn't seem to cause any apparent disease in humans. Although, it does live in materials such as sewage, meat, medical instruments, dust, and even some dry food products. Again similar to Thermococcus gammatolerans, Deinococcus radiodurans has the ability to repair its damaged DNA. It isolates the damaged segments in a controlled area and repairs it. This bacterium can also repair many small fragments from an entire chromosome. It can withstand ionizing radiation, ultraviolet light, desiccation, oxidizing and electrophilic agents. It can also survive up to 15,000 (Gy) with only a 37% loss of viability, and 5,000 (Gy) with almost no loss of viability at all. This means that the bacterium, Deinococcus radiodurans, can survive the radiation of 3,750 Hiroshima blasts at 1000 feet.

#3 Milnesium tardigradum (water bears) - 5,000 gray (Gy)

The Milnesium tardigradum is a cosmopolitan species of tardigrade or water bear that lives in a diverse range of habitats, including the sea around Antarctica. They can even survive the vacuum of space. They have a range of responses designed to survive intense temperatures and harsh environments, some of which allow it to survive up to 5,700 (Gy) and remain viable. 

The Milnesium tardigradum can even resurrect after exposure to dehydration, radiation, and the vacuum of space for up to 200 years or more. At 5,000 (Gy), they could survive the radiation of 1,250 Hiroshima blasts at 1000 feet. 

#4 Braconidae (Wasps) - 1,800 gray (Gy)

The Braconidae is a large family of ancient parasitic wasps dating back to the Cretaceous period. Not only can they survive high radiation doses, around 1,800 (Gy) without completely losing their fertility, the females can also withstand extremely low temperatures, provided food and water are available, and in some incredibly durable specimens even if they are not. 

Some of the species in the family Braconidae use a 100-million-year-old viral infection to alter its host DNA and cause the host to die or become sterile and less active. They then insert their larvae into the host body while the viruses suppress the immune system and allow the parasitoid to grow inside the host undetected. The viruses themselves have become so modified through their evolutionary use by the Braconidae that they appear quite unlike any other known viruses today. At 1,800 (Gy), the Braconidae could survive the radiation of 450 Hiroshima blasts at 1000 feet. 

Interesting fact: The species Microplitis croceipes possesses an extremely accurate sense of smell and can be trained for use in narcotics and explosives detection.

#5 Amoeba - 1,000 gray (Gy)

Amoebas are unicellular organisms which do not have a definite shape. When the amoeba is exposed to environments that are potentially lethal to the cell, it may become dormant by forming itself into a ball and secreting a protective membrane to become a microbial cyst. The cell remains in this state until it encounters more favorable conditions. This is one way the amoeba can withstand up to 1,000 (Gy) and another might be its ability to reproduce asexually or through binary fission. Binary fission is the ability to divide into two parts and regenerate those parts into separate cells, although they can reproduce sexually as well. 

#6 Cockroaches - 100-9,000 gray (Gy)

The belief that cockroaches would inherit the Earth, in the event of nuclear warfare, became widespread after the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. It was reported that the cockroach was the only survivor left in the destroyed and toxic Japanese city. We now know that many of the survivors weren't visible to the eye, but it was confirmed that the cockroach could and did survive. Despite this, its radio-resistance was much lower than was expected, although it was resistant enough to make it though that particular type of nuclear bomb. 

Compared to some, in the terms of nuclear survivability, the cockroach is a pantywaist. In an experiment conducted by Mythbusters 10% of German Cockroaches survived 100 (Gy) or more, but all the specimens expired once levels reached 1,000 (Gy). This makes them only 6 to 15 times tougher than the frailer human species, and it's not much when compared to some of the other highly radio-resistant organisms. This means the cockroach could survive at 1,000 feet from the Hiroshima blast, but probably couldn't survive the megaton-range hydrogen bombs in today's nuclear stockpiles. 

Cockroaches are able to withstand extreme radiation exposure due to the fact that they have slower cell cycles, only molting about once a week. This allows them to escape the radiation fallout relatively unharmed because minimal cells are damaged as they are not dividing and replicating rapidly, like human cells do. This narrows the opportunity time for the radiation to affect their cells and cause cell death or DNA deterioration.

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6 Organisms That Can Survive Travel In The Vacuum Of Space

Panspermia is the theory that life spreads throughout the universe from planet to planet and solar system to solar system, distributed by meteoroids, asteroids, comets, and even through spacecraft via unintended contamination from alien contact. For example, during an Apollo mission to the moon there was a stowaway, the common bacteria Streptococcus mitis, took a walk on the moon with the astronauts and lived to return home and tell it's tale. In 1991, Apollo 12 Commander Pete Conrad commented on the significance of the only known microbial survivor of harsh interplanetary travel:

"I always thought the most significant thing that we ever found on the whole...Moon was that little bacteria who came back and lived and nobody ever said [anything] about it." 

It was the only known survivor of unprotected space travel, but in the span of the last thirty years since the discovery, many other organisms have been exposed to the vacuum of space and lived. Here is a list of 6 organisms that can survive travel in the vacuum of space:

#1 Beer Microbes

Bacteria, called OU-20, amazingly survived a 553-day trial where it was exposed to the vacuum of space and returned to Earth alive and even began to thrive after its return. Taken from the mountains of Beer near a remote fishing village in England, this bacterium has proved to be amazingly resilient and hard to kill. The bacterium was placed on the exterior of the space station to see how it would cope with the harsh environment and the radiation of space. When the microbes were inspected 553 days later many specimens were still alive. The bacteria usually thrive on rock, such as limestone, and can even be used to extract important minerals from rock. The fact that it can survive in space on rock furthers the theory that certain microbes traveled to this planet on rocky meteorites. 

Before this, bacteria spores like Streptococcus mitis had been known to survive many years in space, but this is the longest any cells of photosynthesizing microbes have been recorded surviving. Scientists speculate that OU-20 can survive the ultraviolet light, cosmic rays, and dramatic temperatures because of its extremely thick gel-like cell walls. Also, through the microbe's habit to form colonies in harsh conditions and protect those cells located at the very center from radiation. 

#2 Streptococcus mitis

Streptococcus mitis is a common bacterium that usually lives in the mouth or throat but has also been known to live in space. The Surveyor probes, the first craft to land safely on the moon, carried with them cameras to send pictures of the moon back to Earth. Within one of the cameras, a tiny microbe stowed away and survived over two years of the moon's harsh environment before returning to Earth on the Apollo 12 mission, in 1969. NASA retains an ambiguous stance on the subject, maintaining that the equipment could have been compromised by a sneeze from a technician after its return to Earth, but recently has been more open to the possibility. NASA even marked the 30 year anniversary since the microbe's return to Earth in 1999. 

#3 Sea Plankton

Recently, Russian cosmonauts have reported the presence of sea plankton and other microscopic particles on the exterior of the International Space Station. Chief of the Russian ISS orbital mission Vladimir Solovyev said in a recent press release:

“Results of the experiment are absolutely unique. We have found traces of sea plankton and microscopic particles on the illuminator surface. This should be studied further.” 

“Results of the scope of scientific experiments which had been conducted for a quite long time were summed up in the previous year, confirming that some organisms can live on the surface of the International Space Station (ISS) for years amid factors of a space flight, such as zero gravity, temperature conditions and hard cosmic radiation. Several surveys proved that these organisms can even develop.”

NASA has yet to jump on board with this new find, again retaining its ambiguity, but with more studies we may soon have an official statement. One type of sea crustacean and form of sea plankton, water fleas, are known to reproduce through parthenogenesis. Parthenogenesis is an asexual form of reproduction where no genetic contribution is needed from the male of the species, but the resulting offspring can still be male or non-clone females. Water fleas will often reproduce this way when exposed to incredibly harsh environments, so this ability might be used to populate a viable habitat after being exposed to extreme conditions, like those experienced in space. Parthenogenesis has been known to enable animals to retain genetic diversity among populations in small habitats, like islands, by enabling the female to reproduce completely asexually or produce, without genetic contribution from a male, male offspring to breed with. The fact that the females are better equipped to survive the harsh conditions and can produce males, without any male contribution, leads to the assumption that the females of the species were the first to survive the harsh conditions of space and arrive on Earth. It could even be that the males of the species are simply a product of evolution, created as a retainer of genetic information, and only used to provide genetic diversity when the occasion arises, like an arrival to Earth. See the article 5 Animals That May Prove The Male Sex Is A Product Of Evolution for more information and explanation. 

#4 Lichen

The lichen pictured above was exposed to the vacuum of space outside the International Space Station in 2008. A follow-up mission was issued in 2009 and both experiments lasted over a year and a half. The lichen was observed to go into a dormant state, waiting for better conditions to arise, and continued to thrive once it had made the trip back to Earth. 

"The results from the Expose-E mission's astrobiology experiments are exciting in that they test life's capacity to survive the harsh environment of outer space," says Sherry Cady, editor-in-chief of Astrobiology. "These kinds of activities are critical to the success of future missions for solar system exploration."

The European Space Agency's study reports that its findings lend credence to the theory of Panspermia, which states that life spreads throughout the universe. The findings could also lend a hand in developing new formulas for sunscreen.

#5 Spores of Bacillus pumilus SAFR-032

Bacillus pumilus can form endospores, tough, dormant, and non-reproductive structures that allow it to survive harsh conditions and extreme environments. The tough shells of the endospores provide the organism with the means to protect its genetic material from cosmic radiation and other factors. A team of researchers on the International Space Station exposed the spores to a simulated Mars environment:

"After testing exposure to the simulated Mars environment, we wanted to see what would happen in real space, and EuTEF gave us the chance," said Kasthuri J. Venkateswaran, a researcher with the Biotechnology and Planetary Protection Group at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and a co-author on all three papers, according to a news release. "To our surprise, some of the spores survived for 18 months."

The researchers found that the spores which survived exposure to the simulated Mars environment, showed an increased resistance to U.V. radiation when back on Earth. In a second study, researchers exposed both Bacillus pumilus and Bacillus subtilis to space radiation and temperature fluctuations for over a year followed by exposure to the simulated Mars Environment. Researchers found that when they filtered out some of the radiation 50% of these spores survived, meaning that it is possible for these spores to hitch a ride through space if they are sheltered against solar radiation. The third experiment was with the lichen mentioned in #4, and the researchers concluded that some organisms could survive space for millions of years before landing on a planet. Once the organisms land, it can be speculated that their evolution from there is only limited to the various environments of their new terrain. In the future, we may be able to hypothesize the various animals that may exist on a newly discovered habitable planet by looking at the organisms that occupy similar environments here on Earth. If life is found on other habitable planets and the theory of Panspermia is proven correct, then all life forms come from the same building blocks, and life throughout the solar system could be quite similar even on planets millions of light years away. Therefore we could accurately predict what life might be where, based on the environment of the planet in question. See the article 5 Possibilities Of How Alien Life Could Appear On Other Habitable Planets for some ideas. One example is the bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans, which was listed as the world's toughest bacterium in The Guinness Book Of World Records.

#6 Tardigrades

Tardigrades, also known as water bears, are aquatic micro-animals with eight legs and they are the first known animal species with the ability to survive in space. In 2007, for ten days a group of tardigrades were subjected to an experiment, some of the specimens were exposed to solar radiation, some to just the vacuum of space, and some to a combination of both. Those that were protected from full U.V. radiation exposure survived at a remarkable rate of 68%, and revived within 30 minutes of rehydration. Those that were exposed both to the vacuum and to radiation maintained significantly reduced survival rates, with only 3 specimens of the Milnesium tardigradum species surviving. 

It should also be noted that the Milnesium tardigradum can reproduce sexually and through parthenogenesis. In May 2011, Italian scientists sent tardigrades on board the International Space Station along with other extremophiles on STS-134, the final flight of Space Shuttle Endeavour. Their conclusion was that microgravity and cosmic radiation "did not significantly affect survival of tardigrades in flight, confirming that tardigrades represent a useful animal for space research."

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8 Pieces of Crazy and Unconventional Performance Art

Performance art challenges accepted conventions and traditional forms of visual art such as painting and sculpture. Sometimes performance art focuses on the human body as it's canvas through movement, dance, or actions and activity not usually associated with art. It is normally presented live by the artist and their collaborators and sometimes with hired performers. Recently, performance art is becoming more and more unusual as the bounds of conventionality are stretched further and further to shock audiences and enable new artists to make a name for themselves. Here is 8 pieces of crazy and unconventional performance art.

1 Marina Abramovic's Russian Roulette with Knives

HIDDEN MOTHER - Rhythm 10 (The Star), by Marina Abramovic from Hidden Mother on Vimeo.

Marina Abramovic describes the piece's process, "I lay a sheet of white paper on the floor. I lay twenty knives of different shapes and sizes on the floor. I place two cassette recorders with microphones on the floor. I switch on the first cassette recorder. I take the knife and plunge it, as fast as I can, into the flesh between the outstretched fingers of my left hand. After each cut, I change to a different knife. Once all the knives (all the rhythms) have been used, I rewind the tape. I listen to the recording of the first performance. I concentrate. I repeat the first part of the performance. I pick up the knives in the same sequence, adhere to the same rhythm and cut myself in the same places. In this performance, the mistakes of the past and those of the present are synchronous. I rewind the same tape and listen to the dual rhythm of the knives. I leave." The music is added to create a build-up of suspense and anticipation as each mistake with the knife cuts Abramovic, which she repeats purposely the second time around.

2 Model Rides Bus Naked for Art Performance

A model wearing nothing but bold messages written in black ink on her skin rides a the bus naked to inspire people to think of the origin of life and the universe. Instead of apparel, the words "shirt," "bra," and "jacket" are written where the the articles of clothing are usually worn.

3 Under Water Paintings From The Black Sea

Russian artist Denis Lotarev paints underwater at depths of 30 feet in the Red and Black seas. It is often dangerous due to strong currents and poisonous fish. "It just so happened that I have two favorite things in life. (The first one is) diving and swimming: I love the sea and I've loved the sea since childhood. And my second favourite thing is painting. I have an academic education from the Repin Institute of Fine Arts. And somehow, going on frequent swims, I always had the thought - how could I draw this, capture this, because there is such beauty that you see - no camera can capture it," said Lotarev when asked how he came up with the idea.

4 Woman Gave Birth In Art Gallery For Public Performance

Broadcasted live online and open to the public, a woman gives birth in a space set up just for the event in an art gallery. She believes that human life is the most profound work of art and her life is an ongoing performance, so she chose to exhibit the process of birthing a child from October 8 of 2011 to October 25th. She equates it to a tribal experience in indigenous times when birth was celebrated as a community.

5 Artist Injects Herself With Horse Blood

In a piece titled, "May the Horse Live in Me," artist Marion Laval-Jeantet prepare her body for months to accept plasma obtained from horse blood. The piece is said to explore the boundaries between what is animal and what is human. In an interview on the piece for Centre Press Marion states she felt distinctively horsey after the injection, ""I had the feeling of being superhuman. I was not normal in my body. I was hyper, sensitive, hypernerveuse, very fearful. Emotionalism of herbivore. I could not sleep. I felt like being possibly a little horse."

6 Man Allows Himself to be Shot for Performance Art

In the 70's, an artist by the name of Chris Burden allows himself to be shot in the arm by a 22 Rifle at a distance of 15 feet, in a piece titled "Shoot." 

7 Dutch Artist Turns Dead Cat Into Remote Controlled Helicopter

Dutch artist Bart Jansen loved his cat so much he decided never to part with him. The cat, named Orville Wright after the famous aviator, was stuffed by a taxidermist and then turned into flying cat named the "Orvillecopter." The artist teamed up with radio-controlled helicopter expert Arjen Beltman to make the cat fly for the first time. Beltman designed a custom mechanism and attached it to the stuffed cat turning the critter into half cat, half machine. 

8 Real-Life Sleeping Beauty Signs Contract To Marry The Man Who Wakes Her With A Kiss

An installation at the National Art Museum of Ukraine exhibits artist Taras Polataiko's real-life Sleeping Beauty where a young girl has signed a contract to marry, out of hundreds of men, the one who manages to rouse her with a kiss. The Prince Charmings had to be at least 18 years old and also sign a contract. One creepy guy who showed up for the installation said,  “I wanted to sense her essence. I didn’t even want to see her. I wanted to feel that girl. I wanted to feel her with my heart, but I didn’t feel anything.” In an unexpected twist ending, instead of awaking to a prince, she awoke to a princess charming! Unfortunately, the Ukraine does not allow same-sex marriage so to complete the contract they would have to be married in a different country.

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What Did Ancient Greek Music Sound Like? - Listen Here

David Creese of the University of Newcastle plays an ancient Greek song taken from stone inscriptions constructed on an eight-string "canon" (a small stringed instrument) with movable bridges. (Audio file is ©BBC)


Music is a part of human nature, and evidence of musical instruments shows up consistently in the archaeological record. We can track the first flute-like instrument all the way back to the Neanderthals. The ancient Greeks played their music on stringed instruments like a zither or the lyre as well as reed pipes, and percussion mediums. We know about the use of some of these obsolete instruments through descriptions from ancient texts, paintings, and archaeological remains. In fact, most famous Greek plays like Homer's epic poem The Odyssey, were essentially musicals meant to be sung with some normal speech interjected in. But could these records allow us to go back in time and hear ancient music as it was demonstrated thousands of years ago?

Recently, new revelations about ancient Greek and Egyptian music have been deciphered from several ancient documents and stone inscriptions written around 450 B.C. On the stone carvings, many known Greek songs and poems are inscribed with notations assigning vocal ranges to lyrics with a simple letter scale. For instance, "A" would represent words sung at the top of the musical scale, so therefore "N" would represent a musical note halfway down the scale, and so forth. Absolute pitch can then be figured out from the vocal ranges noted on the ancient stone. The Egyptians also left us similar notations rediscovered on ancient papyrus documents, recovered from burial tombs. In fact, the Egyptian documents and some of the ancient Greek documents were published as early as 1581. Nobody knew how to read ancient Egyptian in 1581, and archaeological evidence for the ancient Greeks, at that time, was limited. Until the known examples were augmented by new finds in recent decades, we had no chance of deciphering their ancient melodies. But with these new finds, many research projects funded by notable institutions have embarked on a journey to bring this music back to life. 


So what did ancient Greek music sound like? 

Listen below to a song written by the Greek poet Seikilos, played by Dr. David Creese, using Ptolemy's 2nd Century A.D. precise mathematical ratios for scale-tunings.



The words of the song can be translated to:

While you're alive, shine:
never let your mood decline.
We've a brief span of life to spend:
Time necessitates an end.

The composition is distinct because it marks the regular rhythmic beat, and demonstrates that the ancient Greek voice went up in pitch on certain syllables and fell on others. Noting an important principle in the ancient Greek language in which the accents indicate pitch not stress, unlike the English language. Despite the differences in our speech, the music is surprisingly similar to what you might hear coming out of a modern day music box. 

Listen to Waltz of the Flowers, by Tchaikovsky, and Greensleeves, by King Henry VIII below, and compare for yourself: (tip: listen to the ancient Greek song before each example)



http://lib.store.yahoo.net/lib/musicboxattic/Greensleeves.mp3



Not an exact match, but eerily similar. Another example of a somewhat similar tune from a more recent era is Chopin's Nocturne in C sharp:



The ancient song even sounds reminiscent of some Christmas songs, like O Come, All Ye Faithful, written in the 1700's:

 

Do you recognize a song that sounds similar? Let me know in the comment section below.

Here are some more compositions emulating ancient Greek music:




Listen in as University of Vermont classics professor John C. Franklin uses electric keyboards and recordings to recreate ancient sounds:

http://archive.burlingtonfreepress.com/videonetwork/2474835986001/What-did-ancient-Greek-music-sound-like-



Here is an idea of how ancient Egyptian music could have sounded:




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5 Animals That May Prove the Male Sex Is A Product Of Evolution

Many have asked the question: "Exactly which of our two visages is it, male or female, that came first?" Maybe both, or does just one sex contain all the components we need? It is similar to the question "Did the chicken come first, or the egg?" But instead the question is, "Did the male come first, or the female?" The christian Bible strives to answer this question with a story about a man, some mud, and a rib bone. The man was formed out of mud and the woman from the man's rib bone. So therefore the man is said to have come first, at least according to the Christians, but does science back this theory up? One way to scientifically figure this question out is to look at the reproduction processes of humans and animals. That is to say, can the males or females of any species reproduce without any aid whatsoever from their corresponding gender? Even hermaphroditic species, that reproduce by themselves because they contain reproductive organs from both sexes in an individual body, still reproduce with a contribution from the male sex. Then there are certain plants that continuously clone themselves from their cuttings or droppings, effectively rendering themselves immortal. A trait of the gods, but are there any animals that can reproduce asexually and still produce viable males of their species or non-clone females? Amazingly, the answer is yes there are. Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction in animals where growth and development of embryos occur without fertilization. Meaning that the females reproduce without any contribution from the males of their species. The term is sometimes used inaccurately to describe reproduction modes in hermaphroditic species, but in Parthenogenesis the egg is unfertilized and develops into both males and females. Also, Parthenogenesis is distinct from cloning, a process where the new organism is genetically identical to the cell donor. Parthenogenesis is different, in that it originates from the genetic material contained within an egg cell but the new organism is not necessarily genetically identical to the parent.

There are many examples of invertebrates that naturally display this ability and some vertebrates like sharks, fish, birds, lizards, and snakes. There are no known cases of naturally occurring mammalian parthenogenesis in the wild, but on June 26, 2007, International Stem Cell Corporation (ISCC), a California-based stem cell research company, announced that their lead scientist, Dr. Elena Revazova, and her research team were the first to intentionally create human stem cells from unfertilized human eggs using Parthenogenesis. With the use of parthenogenesis to produce human stem cells, it is possible to generate a bank of cell lines whose tissue derivatives, collectively, could be matched with a significant number of individuals within the human population. The process may offer a way for creating stem cells that are genetically matched to a particular person for the treatment of degenerative diseases. 

This outstanding scientific breakthrough was completed in a lab and is therefore unnatural, but there are many species that don't need the aid of expensive lab devices to complete the Parthenogenesis process. The North American pit viper undergoes this process in the wild, even if there are males in the vicinity. Some animals become invasive due to the phenomenal densities their populations reach through parthenogenesis reproduction, like the New Zealand mud snail. Most of these animals can reproduce sexually, but often biologically select Parthenogenesis in order to avoid wasting the valuable resources required to produce the unnecessary males of their species. In some species a single female could theoretically have male offspring asexually by Parthenogenesis, then switch to sexual reproduction with their male offspring to maintain a higher level of genetic diversity than asexual reproduction alone can generate, like in Komodo dragons. Tardigrades, an aquatic micro-animal that can survive a number of harsh environments including travel in the vacuum of space, also reproduce through selective parthenogenesis. So the female has definitely come out on top in this debate, but does that mean she was first? Not necessarily, but it does mean that under certain conditions the males of any species may become obsolete. It also means that if we choose to believe in a god, specifically the christian god, and therefore believe that the christian Bible is an example facts and truth, in that it states humans were created in God's image. Then those that believe in the christian god must accept that the image could just as likely be female, if the female sex came first. Some may even view their gods as hermaphroditic entities, or of no sex at all.

It certainly proves that under extreme conditions, like harsh environments, the females of many species can reproduce without any viable males available to contribute to the genetic pool. They can survive and even thrive. The fact that some females can reproduce non-clones and male offspring, without any genetic contribution from the males of their species, certainly supports the theory that the female came first. It would seem that the female is more equipped to survive and repopulate under harsh conditions, if the occasion should arise. Like for example populating a new planet, or repopulating after a global disaster followed by a mass extinction. Similar to what could happen if say, theoretically, a giant asteroid hit Earth and wiped out 96 percent of all marine species and 70 percent of all terrestrial vertebrates species. So maybe the story should read more like this:

"The LORD God fashioned into a man the rib which She had taken from the woman, and brought him to the woman. 23 The woman said, "This is now bone of my bones, And flesh of my flesh; He shall be called Man, Because he was taken out of Woman."…

Here is a list of 5 animals that may prove the male sex is a product of evolution: 

#1 Komodo Dragons

A Komodo dragon at London Zoo named Sungai laid a clutch of eggs in late 2005 after being separated from the male of her species for more than two years. Initially, it was assumed that she had been able to store sperm from her earlier encounter with a male. But in December of 2006, it was reported that Flora, a Komodo dragon living in a zoo in England, was proved through genetic testing to have laid unfertilized eggs. Of all those that hatched, every one of them were male. Scientists performed genetic tests on three eggs that collapsed after being moved to an incubator, and confirmed that Flora had never been in physical contact with any male dragon. Later testing showed Sungai's eggs were also produced without male fertilization. The first zoo, in America, to document parthenogenesis in Komodo dragons was the Sedgwick County Zoo in Wichita, it had two adult female Komodo dragons lay unfertilized eggs. Out of 17 eggs only two eggs were incubated and hatched, and both hatchlings were male.

Komodo dragons have the ZW chromosomal sex-determination system, as opposed to the mammalian XY system. When a female Komodo dragon reproduces asexually, she provides her progeny with only one chromosome from each of her pairs of chromosomes, including only one of her two sex chromosomes. This single set of chromosomes is duplicated in the egg, which develops via parthenogenesis. Eggs receiving a Z chromosome become ZZ (male); those receiving a W chromosome become WW and fail to develop, meaning that only males are produced by parthenogenesis in this species.

It has been hypothesized that this reproductive adaptation allows a single female to enter an isolated ecological niche (such as an island) and by parthenogenesis produce male offspring, thereby establishing a sexually reproducing population (via reproduction with her offspring that can result in both male and female young). There are many advantages to such an adaptation, but despite this zoos are cautioned that parthenogenesis may be detrimental to genetic diversity. It should be noted that the species V. komodoensis (Komono Dragon) has been around for 3.8 million years, and the process of reproduction through parthenogenesis could be one explanation for their continued survival. Especially in the modern era, with increasing threats to their habitats and crucial food sources by local human populations.

#2 Hammerhead Sharks

In 2007, a bonnethead shark, a member of the hammerhead shark genus, was found to be capable of asexual reproduction by automictic parthenogenesis. Automictic parthenogenisis is where a female's ovum fuses with a polar body to form a zygote without the need for a male. This means that the gametes fuse after meiosis, and therefore the offspring is not genetically identical to parent. This was the first shark known to do this. The shark was found to have produced a pup in a tank containing three female hammerheads, but no males.

Unfortunately, the shark pup was killed by a stingray within days of birth, but after the investigation of the birth was concluded, DNA testing proved that the reproduction was parthenogenic. The testing proved the female pup's DNA matched only one female who lived in the tank, and that no male DNA was present in the pup. The pup was not a twin or clone of her mother, but rather, contained only half of her mother's DNA ("automictic parthenogenesis"). Until this documentation, this type of reproduction had only been seen in bony fish. The bonnethead shark was the first cartilaginous fish proven to reproduce through parthenogenisis.

#3 Water Fleas

Called water fleas because their swimming style resembles the movements of fleas, Cladocera is an order of small aquatic crustaceans. Most species show cyclical parthenogenesis, reproducing both sexually and asexually, this provides resting eggs that allow the species to survive harsh conditions and disperse to distant habitats. Towards the end of the growing season the females produce tough "resting eggs" or "winter eggs."

Most offspring are typically female, but a small number of males are also produced in most species. The males produced, then fertilize the females' eggs. The resulting offspring are haploid eggs, or offspring with only one set of chromosomes. Although, in species without males, these eggs are also produced asexually and are diploid, meaning they have two sets of chromosomes and are usually female. The resting eggs are protected by a hardened coat called the ephippium, which can withstand periods of extreme cold, drought, or lack of food and still hatch.

When conditions improve the resting eggs hatch into viable females, ensuring their survival despite the harsh conditions. It almost seems as if they are starting from the beginning each time periods of harsh conditions are experienced, which would imply that the female of the species is the beginning. Also, some species of water fleas when confronted with a water pollutant like pesticides, will produce more males to ensure greater genetic diversity among the resting eggs. They do this because the females experience reproduction mutations caused by the pollutants.(s1) (s2) This would imply that gender is controlled by environmental variables, and that evolution keeps sex determination flexible. It also shows that organisms can evolve quickly to compensate for negative mutations, by creating a balance with respect to their sex.

In fact, according to the study published today in the journal Developmental Cell, sex-specific transcription factors perform lifelong work to maintain sexual determination and protect against reprogramming of cells from one sex to the other. Researchers found the sex of gonadal cells -- those found in the ovaries or testes -- require maintenance throughout life. This research also showed loss of a single transcription factor can result in the transformation of male cells into female cells. (s) So why do the male cells revert to female cells, and not the other way around? Could it be because the female cell was the original form, and are more equipped to contend with the stress experienced from the manipulations and mutations the scientists forced on the cell? Could the male sex just be a product of evolution?

Rsearchers from Osaka University and the National Institute for Basic Biology, Japan, have found a highly significant connection between the molecular mechanisms underlying genetic and environmental sex determination. The scientists report the identification of a gene responsible for the production of males during environmental sex determination in the crustacean Daphnia. This work lends support to the "Doublesex hypothesis" of sex determination, and the ancestral link between genetic and environmental sex determination. (s)

#4 Pit Vipers

In 2012, facultative parthenogenesis was reported in wild vertebrates for the first time in captured pregnant copperhead and cottonmouth female pit-vipers. Facultative parthenogenesis is a term used to describe a species that normally reproduces sexually, but can undergo asexual reproduction. In contrast, obligate parthenogenesis is where the females reproduce exclusively by asexual means. Facultative parthenogenesis is believed to be a response to a lack of a viable male, if a male is absent from the habitat, or if the male is unable to produce viable offspring. Although, pit vipers have been observed reproducing by parthenogenesis, even with viable males in the vicinity. 

#5 New Mexico Whiptail

One of the most interesting facts about the New Mexico whiptail is that even in completely asexual populations, meaning populations that lack males, they still require sexual behavioral stimuli for maximum reproductive success. But instead of sexual acts performed between males and females, the females of the New Mexico whiptail species perform them on each other. One female, shortly after laying eggs, when levels of progesterone are high, plays the male's role and mounts the female that is about to lay eggs. By acting out the courtship ritual they increase in their hormone levels and have greater fecundity than those kept in isolation. The asexual examples of the species are actually created from a hybridization of several types of whiptail or through parthenogenic reproduction of an adult New Mexico whiptail. This hybridization prevents healthy males from forming in subsequent generations, but examples of males do exist in the parent species. Therefore, through a combination of interspecific hybridization and parthenogenesis, the resulting all-female population has evolved into a unique species capable of reproduction. Or maybe this isn't an example of evolution, but devolution due to harsh conditions.

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5 Ancient Mammal-Like Reptiles - Some Of The Earliest Known Ancestors To The Human Race

Mammal-like reptiles were the highly varied and widely distributed prehistoric reptiles, or more accurately synapsids, that displayed certain traits that are otherwise considered distinct to mammals. Some examples include parental care, thermoregulation, endothermic metabolisms, burrowing, whiskers used as sensory organs, the presence of a diaphragm, enhanced senses, sexual dimorphism, and an erect posture. Mammal-like reptiles eventually became the dominant land animals during the Mesozoic era, around 260 million years ago. 

Some theorize that the presence of these mammal-like characteristics, in prehistoric reptiles, may prove that modern mammals, including humans, arose from one or more of these proto-mammals. Therefore this would mean that the Reptiliomorpha clade which includes most reptile-like amphibians eventually gave rise to all mammals, reptiles, and before that the early bony-fish (Osteichthyes.) 

The Reptiliomorpha clade is a taxonomic clade within the superclass Tetrapoda – the reptile-like amphibians, which gave rise to the amniotes. Amniotes are animals defined by their ability to lay eggs on land, unlike most amphibians, and tetrapods include most four limbed vertebrates and their ancestors. Both the sauropsids (the ancestors of reptiles and birds) and synapsids (every animal closely related to mammals) are amniotic and began to emerge somewhere around the end of the Paleozoic era, and in the Mesozoic era that followed. Amniotes diverged very early in their evolutionary history into two main lines, the synapsids and the sauropsids - both of which persist into the modern era.

The earliest known fossil for the synapsid is 312 million years old, while the earliest known fossil for the sauropsid is about 306 million years old. This might indicate that mammal-like traits and reptilian-like traits emerged at around the same time. Therefore one did not necessarily evolve from the other but rather shared common ancestors more similar to the reptile-like amphibians. Very few of the non-mammalian synapsids (mammal-like reptiles) outlasted the Triassic period, although survivors persisted into the Cretaceous and are considered, as a phylogenetic unit, to include mammals as descendants.The Mesozoic era has three major periods: the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous, and is also known as The Age Of The Reptiles. 

#1 Oligokyphus

Name: Oligokyphus
Age(s): 227-180 million years ago
Period: Late Triassic-Early Jurassic
Size: 1.5 feet
Location(s) found: UK, Germany, China
Notes:

Oligokyphus were the last members of the non-mammalian synapsids. They are considered to be among the non-mammalian members of the synapsid family and are described as mammal-like reptiles in classical systematics. Originally considered to be an early mammal, it is now classified as a stem-mammal, because Oligokyphus does not have the mammalian jaw attachments. Oligokyphus is in the family Trityledontidae, which means "three knob teeth". The members of this family were all small to medium-sized advanced proto-mammals with combined specialized structures for herbivorous eating. 

These animals were extremely active and burrowed in leaf litter and dirt, which suggests characteristics of rodents and rabbits. They had metabolisms that were partially or completely endothermic, meaning they maintained their bodies at a metabolically favorable temperature with mechanisms like shivering. This ability is usually indicative of warm blooded animals. Because the Oligokyphus was in a transitional state from reptilian to mammalian there is a good possibility that it exercised parental care similar to some other prehistoric transitional mammals, most modern mammals, as well as birds and some reptiles.

#2 Thrinaxodon

Name: Thrinaxodon

Age: 251 million years ago

Period: Early Triassic (Induan)

Size: 1.5 feet

Location(s) found: South Africa (Free State Province), Antarctica

Notes: 

The Thrinaxodon is often considered a transitional fossil because it is closely related to the lineage that leads directly to mammals. Clues to it's remains show that this creature was more mammal-like than even the Thrinaxodon's synapsid ancestors, which suggests a process of evolution leading to the mammal-like animals we see today. It had a fairly large head/skull, with pits in the snout, which may indicate that it had whiskers. Although some modern reptiles, like the Tupinambis lizard, has pits in the same area of the skull which are almost identical. Also, like it's predecessors, the Thrinaxodon laid eggs, and there were many reptilian features in its skeleton. It's remains were found on South Africa and Antarctica, supporting the notion that the two continents were once joined together. 

In response to the wide daily temperature swings of the early Triassic, the Thrinaxodon may have become eurythermic (the ability to function at a broad range of temperatures.) We know the Thirnaxodon was endothermic (the ability to regulate core temperatures from within) and as result of the extreme daily temperature swings of the early Triassic, the processes of homeothermic endothermy could have evolved over time. This means that the Thirnaxodon was probably among one of the first animals that could maintain it's body temperature at a favorable degree, without the help of external ambient heat or outside sources, and instead regulated it's core temperature thorough homeostasis. Although not all homeothermic organisms are endothermic organisms, as some must maintain constant body temperatures through behavioral mechanisms alone. For example, reptiles must bask in the sun or some other heat source to remain active but will revert to a stasis, or a period of inactivity, in cold temperatures. This means that the Thirnaxodon was among some of the first animals to develop this combination of biological processes to enable it to maintain a core body temperature at a favorable degree, without the help of external ambient heat. This would have given it a considerable evolutionary advantage. 



Endothermic organisms accomplish this by releasing heat from internal processes as a major factor in controlling their body temperature. Because endothermic animals have a large number of mitcochondria per cell, they can generate heat by increasing the rate at which they metabolize fats and sugars. In the cold, an endothermic animal is able to reserve heat by dropping their core bodily temperatures to below of those required to maintain homeostasis, a method is known as hypothermia. Functions like shivering also help with the process. When exposed to heat, various functions in different organisms are exhibited to control core temperatures. For example, panting is used by dogs to cool down, ear flapping by elephants, and sweating by humans. 



This capability may enabled the Thirnaxodon and subsequent animals that evolved this ability to withstand colder nights in order to nocturnally pursue prey, as they would not have needed a heat source like the sun to stay active. Nocturnal habits would have increased their diet exponentially, as many insects were active at night, there would have been less competition for prey animals, and the dim lighting would have made it hard for their prey to see. 

In fact, researchers once thought that the transition to nocturnality most likely began about the same time mammals evolved, about 200 million years ago. But new studies suggest nocturnal activities might be much much older than previously suggested, as much as 100 million years earlier, and may have actually began with mammal's ancient synapsid relatives (mammal-like reptiles.)   

"Synapsids are most common in the fossil record between about 315 million years ago and 200 million years ago. The conventional wisdom has always been that they were active during the day (or diurnal), but we never had hard evidence to say that this was definitely the case," said Kenneth Angielczyk, a curator at The Field Museum, the lead author of a paper appearing Sept. 3 in the early edition of Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 

The new findings come from an analysis of scleral ossicles, which are tiny ring-shaped bones embedded in the eyes of numerous backboned animals, such as lizards and birds. Living mammals no longer have this feature, but they were present in our ancient synapsid relatives, according to the study.

"The scleral ossicles tell us about the size and shape of different parts of the eyeball," said Lars Schmitz, a professor of biology at Claremont McKenna, Pitzer, and Scripps Colleges. "In turn, this information allows us to make predictions about the light sensitivity of the eye, which usually reflects the time of day an animal is active. "

The researchers found that the eyes of one of the oldest observed mammal-like reptiles, the carnivore Dimetrodon (#5 on this list), had dimensions in its eyes that signified nocturnal activity; this suggests nocturnal activity developed 100 million years earlier than the time of the first mammals.

"The idea of a nocturnal Dimetrodon was very surprising," Angielczyk said, "but it shows how little we really known about the daily lives of some of our oldest relatives."

The findings of the study is said to be useful to researchers examining the behavior and visual systems of living mammals, among other issues. In addition, the research means that scientists will need to rethink some long-held ideas, such as mammals becoming nocturnal to avoid competition with dinosaurs.

"The study does give us new insights into the daily lives of some of our most ancient relatives," said Kenneth Angielczyk, a paleontologist with the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago.

"Nocturnality comes with advantages and disadvantages," said another of the researchers, Lars Schmitz, a biology professor at Claremont McKenna, Pitzer and Scripps Colleges in California. 

"It's cooler at night, which may be beneficial for some species. As a hunter, it may be easier to approach prey. On the other hand, the dim light levels make it difficult for animals. Keen senses are beneficial," Schmitz added.

Scientists think that Thrinaxodon and the aquatic amphibian, the Broomistega, may have been cohabiting.

#3 Cynognathus

Name: Cynognathus

Age(s): 242-240 million yers ago

Period: Early-Mid Triassic (Spathian-Anisian)   

Size: 3.5 feet

Location found: South Africa (Karoo region), Lesotho, Argentina, Antarctica, China

Notes:

The Cynognathus is an extinct genus of large-bodied cynodont therapsid that lived in the Early and Middle Triassic. The Cynognathus was a large predator, closely related to mammals, and had an almost worldwide distribution. Its hind limbs were placed directly beneath the body, like a mammal, but the fore-limbs sprawled outwards in a reptilian fashion. This form of double (erect/sprawling) gait is also found in some primitive mammals still alive today and are indicative of a transitional period. 



It's dentary (mandible and lower jaw) was equipped with differentiated teeth that enabled the Cynoganthus to effectively process it's food before swallowing and the presence of a secondary palate in the mouth indicated that it could breathe and swallow simultaneously. The ability to breathe and swallow simultaneously is a trait common among mammals, as all mammals display this trait with the the only exception being humans due to the position of the larynx or the voice box. Although human babies can breathe and swallow at the same time because the larynx does not fully develop until the child reaches around 9 months of age. 



The Cynognathus had a lack of ribs in the stomach region suggesting the presence of an efficient diaphragm: an important muscle for mammalian breathing. Pits and canals on the bone of the snout indicated concentrations of nerves and blood vessels. These same structures allow hairs (whiskers) to be used as sensory organs on modern mammals. 

#4 Moschops

Name: Moschops (Cow-Face)

Age: 285 million years ago

Period: Early Permian

Size: 16.5 feet

Location(s) found: South Africa (Karoo region) 

Notes: 

Due to the presumably nutrient-poor food in their habitat the Moschops had to feed constantly. Its anatomy was unique in that it could spread its elbow joints widely, enabling it to move in a more mammal-like way compared to the other animals that walked on all fours at this time. This dexterity may have enabled the Moschops to carry a massive body more easily while feeding, which would have given it an edge over any rival species competing for territory and limited resources, like the the nutrient-lacking flora that composed their diet. This evolutionary advantage may have equipped it to survive under such harsh conditions, and if some theories are correct it may have ensured the eventual emergence of mammals roughly 85 million years later.



It is also possible that Moschops, and other dinocephalians, were semiaquatic given their heavy build and the fact that the limbs had spreading hands and feet splayed out wider and more separated than other land animals at that time. Their heavy skulls may have also been useful for diving after food. Moschops are Therapsids, which is a group of synapsids that include mammals and their ancestors. Many of the traits seen as unique to mammals had their origin with the early therapsids, like the Moschops, including the erect posture of humans. 

#5 Dimetrodon

Name: Dimetrodon

Age(s): 299-260 million years ago

Period: Early-Mid Permian 

Size: 10 feet

Notes:

The Dimetrodon is often mistaken for a dinosaur or as a contemporary of dinosaurs in popular culture, but it actually went extinct around 40 million years before the appearance of the first dinosaur in the Triassic period. Generally reptile-like in appearance and physiology, the Dimetrodon is nevertheless more-closely related to mammals than it is to any living reptilian group. Although it is not considered a direct ancestor of any modern mammal. 



The Dimetrodon belongs to a group traditionally called "mammal-like reptiles," but more recently termed "stem-mammals" or "non-mammalian synapsids." Many vertebrate paleontologists group the Dimetrodon together with mammals, in an evolutionary group or clade called Synapsida, while dinosaurs are grouped with living reptiles and living birds in a separate group Sauropsida. The Dimetrodon may have been sexually dimorphic, meaning that the males and the females had slightly different body sizes, like humans.

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